Ružica Ljubičić
In recent decades, women have been increasingly called to return to traditional values. Messages about women’s worth are propagated by various anti-gender movements emphasizing the importance of female chastity, modesty, and submission to the spiritual authority of men[1]. These messages center on the notion that a woman’s value lies solely in her virginity, purity, and passivity, while any behavior that deviates from these norms is labeled as sinful and unacceptable. Society is saturated with an idealized image of female sexuality deeply rooted in tradition, religion, and culture. Female sexuality is imbued with stereotypes and prejudices that permeate culture, art, and media, prompting a need for serious discourse. We must ask critical questions: What is the significance of female virginity? Is a woman’s worth defined by her hymen? Who created the cult of virginity? In which societies and religions is this narrative most pronounced? How much harm has the promotion of virginity caused women by glorifying some as paragons of virtue while condemning others as promiscuous? Is there balance in this discourse? Can a woman be respected if she is sexually active? What determines her dignity? As a society, where do we err in assigning the labels „virgin“ and „sinner“? Why is the narrative of virginity far more emphasized for women than for men?This essay explores the role of the Vestal Virgins in ancient Rome, examining their treatment in the society they lived in, what they symbolized, their significance for the spiritual life of Rome, how they were perceived then, what has changed, and how the narrative of virginity holds value in contemporary society.
Patriarchal Ideas of Female Chastity
According to Webster’s Dictionary, chastity in a sexual sense is defined as „abstention from unlawful sexual intercourse,“ particularly in reference to women (Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, 1989). The discourse on male and female sexuality reveals significant disparities, raising the question of whether women will ever achieve sexual autonomy or if their sexuality will forever be dictated by male standards projected onto societal gender roles. Deborah and John Sawyer observe that perceptions of femininity have been shaped by specific religious beliefs and subsequently reinforced through rituals, ceremonies, and prayers. When questioning the construction of femininity, it is essential to also interrogate its counterpart—masculinity. According to the Sawyers, patriarchal religion develops definitive notions of femininity, which then gain cultural significance as the essence of being a woman (Sawyer & Sawyer, 2022: 139). In other words, femininity becomes „the Other“ affirming the dominance and normative standards of masculinity (De Beauvoir, 2016: 18). In this context, the concept of virginity takes on dimensions of passive submission, obedience, and control over female sexuality. The double standards, alongside society’s obsession with both virginity and pornography, place immense pressure on young girls, who experience a split between the roles of the chaste, obedient virgin and the promiscuous woman whose body serves male desire. Historian Elizabeth Abbott, in her book A History of Celibacy (2007), highlights the double standards that have justified prostitution in the name of chastity for centuries. She cites St. Augustine, who stated that If we were to eliminate prostitutes from human society, the world would be tainted with lust (Abbott, 2007: 137). Inspired by Augustine’s views, medieval theologians compiled extensive lists of forbidden erotic acts. Prostitution and related behaviors were deemed sinful, and sexual relations were framed solely in terms of procreation[2]. Chastity, as a testament to a pure and untouched body, was regarded as the most important quality of a bride, who was seen as property. Abbott (2007) identifies several key assumptions underpinning the obsession with virginity:1)A bride’s chastity guaranteed her husband that the children she bore, particularly the firstborn, were his. 2) She had not dishonored him by allowing another man to take her virginity and intimately know her body 3) By abstaining from sexual activity, she demonstrated a predisposition to marital fidelity.4) By adhering to the commands of her guardians, culture, and religion, she proved her understanding of her duties and likelihood of submitting to her husband’s authority.5) Arriving at marriage without children ensured that her dowry and future earnings would benefit only the new family she formed with her husband. 6) The bride’s family also reaped benefits from her virginity 7) Her chastity allowed her family to negotiate favorable terms for the marriage. 8) Her reputation preserved the honor of both her and her husband’s families. She complied with religious rules prohibiting premarital sex, avoiding the wrath of offended deities on her family (Abbott, 2007: 140).
The narrative of virginity becomes dangerous and destructive when it demands that women suppress all forms of sexual desire and romantic emotions, thereby controlling their thoughts, feelings, and behavior. This represents a form of patriarchal programming of women’s subconscious, pressuring them to restrain themselves while granting men the power to control and oppress their bodies and psyches. The constructs of male dominance and female passivity in romantic relationships dictate that men take initiative while women exhibit modesty. Such elements of patriarchal discourse perpetuate the subordination and passive roles of women in emotional expression, with feelings of shame fostering introverted behavior (Tubonjić, 2023: 76). In traditional patriarchal discourse, women’s bodies and sexuality are perceived as collective property of the family and community, denying women autonomy. This destructive pattern of behavior alienates women from their own bodies and beings. David Ghanim (2015: 65) explains that women are perceived solely as objects of the male gaze. When their bodies are regulated and culturally controlled, they are stripped of their subjectivity, identity, and sensuality, remaining trapped within the confines of patriarchy (Ghanim, 2015: 66).
The Connection Between Ancient Traditions and the Cult of Virginity
Antiquity was a period in which women’s emancipation and struggle for rights were virtually nonexistent. In ancient times, women were excluded from the public sphere and confined to societal roles that denied them access to political leadership, governance, and the privileges enjoyed by men. Women were subordinate to their husbands, with their influence limited to household duties and child-rearing. In ancient Greece, premarital purity was an essential prerequisite for brides. Abbott notes that girls were required to marry immediately after puberty to eliminate the possibility of „sexual error“ (Abbott, 2007: 24). The importance placed on female virginity is evident in the ancient custom where young couples used a bag of pig’s blood to stain the snow-white linen of the marriage bed as proof of a ruptured hymen (Abbott, 2007: 47). The term „hymen“, meaning „membrane“, is of Greek origin and refers to a thin membrane at the vaginal opening. While it serves no apparent anatomical function, David Ghanim highlights how the hymen’s uniqueness fueled male imaginations, leading to its association with female sexuality. In The Virginity Trap in the Middle East (2015), Ghanim explains that patriarchal discourse equates female virginity with an intact hymen. Virginity remains a significant social category in Islamic countries of the Middle East and North Africa, where preserving an intact hymen until the wedding night is seen as a woman’s most valuable trait and a prized commodity in arranged marriages. Because hymeneal blood was considered the sole proof of virginity, detailed defloration rituals were tied to the wedding night. Ghanim states that vaginal penetration without hymeneal bleeding was a societal issue linked to honor, making the proof of sexual purity essential in this context. This obsession with hymeneal blood creates a violent association between blood and sexuality, resulting in a societal system that terrorizes women’s lives (Ghanim, 2015). Men socially construct the hymen’s significance through concepts of sexual purity, honor, and virginity. As a symbol of virginity, the hymen carries various meanings across cultures. British art historian Mark Gisbourne notes that Just as the walls of monasteries or caves shield from the outside world and transform the inner world of monasteries and prayer into the outer expanse, so too does the hymen symbolize the protection of spiritual freedom from the suffering of desires, or samsara, as expressed in Buddhist terms (Zanki, 2012: 74).
Virgins and Priestesses
During antiquity, throughout their upbringing and maturation, as well as later in life, girls and women assumed various religious roles. Particularly significant was female priesthood in different cults. Joan Breton Connelly, in her book Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece (2007), writes that two young girls, selected in the cult of Athena[3], entered the service of the goddess at the age of 7. As they reached puberty, they donned yellow clothing and participated in rituals dedicated to Artemis Brauronia, a goddess especially protective of young girls on their path to maidenhood. After menarche, or the first menstrual bleeding, they became parthenoi (maidens ready for marriage). During their full youth and virginity, they took on the role of kanephoroi, basket-bearers in sacred processions. Connelly describes how the girls would parade and present themselves to the citizens, adorned with necklaces made of figs symbolizing their fertility (Connelly, 2007: 4). Priestesses in ancient Greece played important roles as advisors, prophetesses, and were also significant figures in the political life of many city-states. For example, in the cult of Athena, priestesses wielded considerable influence over the political life of Athens. The position of high priestess in the temple of Athena was a prominent political and religious role reserved for women from Athenian aristocracy. As priestesses of Athena, they had the freedom to move within the male political elite, unlike other women whose place was in the household and who were restrained from interacting with men. In the Greco-Roman world, a priestess was seen as a woman chosen by a deity to serve and was under that deity’s protection. While serving in the priesthood, priestesses did not fulfill maternal roles (Blundell, 1998: 24). Age, sexual status, and ritual purity were inseparably linked concepts in the Greek religious system. Greek priestesses can be divided into three age groups—girls and adolescents, mature adult women, and elderly women—each with appropriate „means“ for achieving ritual purity. Girls and adolescents aimed to achieve ritual purity through their physical virginity until marriage, while adult women aspired to remain virgins for life (Blundell, 1998: 25). According to Kristen Gentile, each method was unique to the social and sexual status of the age group and helped to explain why different cults chose priestesses of various ages. Girls and adolescents were grouped together because their sexual status was essentially the same; both were young physical virgins (Gentile, 2009: 17). Additionally, as Gentile highlights, these groups shared social circumstances in that they were unmarried and still under the control of their fathers or guardians. Virginity was simply presumed due to the young age of the women serving in the priesthood, as was the case with the arrhêphoroi in Athens (pre-menstrual girls typically aged between seven and eleven years). Other cults explicitly required that parthenoi (maidens) serve as priestesses until marriage. For instance, both the priestesses of Poseidon in Kalaureia and Artemis in Achaea were described as parthenoi (Gentile, 2009: 28). Initially, only pure, chaste, and innocent girls could serve as intermediaries between the human world and the divine realm. However, as young maidens were often victims of sexual violence, the role of prophetesses began to be entrusted to women over the age of 50, such as the Pythian priestesses. Ancient texts often describe the Pythia as an older woman who, seated on a tripod above a fissure in the rock, inhaled vapors emanating from the earth and, in a trance, uttered disconnected words and thoughts. Priests would record these words and thoughts, transforming them into „prophecies.“ Given the widespread belief in the divine origin of these prophecies, they held significant influence, especially when responding to rulers’ inquiries. During the Hellenistic period, the political influence of prophecies waned, and inquiries to the Pythia were posed exclusively by people of lower social classes who still trusted the Pythia. The Pythian priestesses lived in the ruins of Apollo’s temple as impoverished elderly women. The last record of a Pythia dates to the reign of Emperor Theodosius I, who ordered the closure of temples in 392 CE, thereby ending the history of the Delphic Oracle. Before assuming the role of prophetess, every new Pythia was required to sever all worldly ties and ultimately renounce her identity.[4] Connelly explains that female religious figures were accorded state funerals and were even consulted on political matters of the time. Consequently, in many important aspects, they were treated as equals to men. Other privileges enjoyed by priestesses included tax exemptions, the right to have bodyguards, reserved front-row seats at competitions, and legal privileges rarely afforded to women of that era (Connelly, 2007: 9). Among the priestesses, it is important to mention the prophetess Hippo and the first Delphic priestess Phemonoe, who, along with Thales and Chilon, is attributed the famous saying, „Know thyself“ (Šestak, Šimunković, 2012: 5). One of the most notable priestesses, who enjoyed various privileges, was Athena’s priestess Chrysis. She held the status of a special representative of Athens in Delphi, had the right to consult the oracle, priority in trials, inviolability, tax exemption, front-row seating at all competitions, the right to own a house and land, and other honors customary for proxenos—benefactors of the city. She was one of the few women to be granted this honor by decree, and a monument was erected for her on the Acropolis, ensuring that her status as a priestess would be remembered in history (Connelly, 2007: 12).
The Vestal Virgins
The story of virginity and its importance to patriarchal societies brings us to an intriguing cult that particularly emphasized female chastity—the Vestal Virgins. The Vestal Virgins were a significant part of ancient Roman religion, which consisted of various beliefs and rituals adopted from many conquered peoples and earlier civilizations that profoundly influenced Roman society. The most widespread legend about the founding of Rome is the story of Romulus and Remus, whose mother was a Vestal Virgin. This illustrates how the Romans regarded the Vestal Virgin as the mother of the nation—a woman who gave them life and raised them, leading some to consider her the nurturer of Rome (Plu. Rom.: 2). The Vestal Virgins were dedicated to the goddess Vesta. Vesta was the goddess of the hearth and, as such, never left the „sublime dwelling of the eternal gods“ and always remained the central point, the meeting place, and the heart of the Roman Empire (Novak, 2008: 37). Joshua Mark notes that Vesta was the goddess of the hearth, home, and family life in Roman religion (identified with the Greek goddess Hestia). She was the firstborn daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea and, like the others, was swallowed by her father. When her brother Jupiter (Greek Zeus), who had escaped their father’s appetite, freed his siblings, Vesta was the last to be released (as she was the first swallowed). Thus, she is considered both the oldest and the youngest of all goddesses. She was exceptionally beautiful and attracted the attention of both Apollo and Neptune, who vied for her hand. However, Vesta rejected them both and pleaded with Jupiter to allow her to remain a virgin forever. When he agreed, Vesta was greatly pleased and took care of his home and hearth. Because of this symbolism and related rituals, the goddess Vesta is associated with domestic life and, more importantly for the family, with domestic peace (Mark, 2009). The Vestal Virgins were priestesses, and their priestly order consisted of six Vestals chosen in early childhood, specifically between the ages of six and ten. They were required to remain in their service for thirty years, after which they were given the opportunity to leave the priesthood (Mark, 2009: 129). The historian Livy, in his book The History of Rome from Its Foundation, writes about the establishment of the Vestal cult, noting that Numa founded the cult of the virgins during the existence of the city Alba Longa. Numa instituted a state stipend to ensure the temple could continually support the priestesses and was responsible for their societal status. Vestal Virgins were considered sacred because of their virginity and their practice of religious rituals. However, the establishment of the Vestal Virgins in Rome is attributed to Rome’s second king, Numa Pompilius. Plutarch describes how Numa established the order of high priests known as pontifices, claiming that he was allegedly the first among them (Plu. Rom.: 22). To understand the position of Roman women, and by extension other women living within the empire’s direct influence, we must look back to the earliest times, particularly to the days of the early Republic and the Law of the Twelve Tables (451–450 BCE). According to this law, the position of women throughout their lives was under the control of another. A female child’s life, like that of her brothers, was always subject to the will of her father, who had the legal right known as ius vitae et necis, meaning the „right of life and death“ over his children (Wildfang, 2006: 82). In practice, this legal right was typically exercised only in relation to the selection of children (usually daughters) who would be left to die at birth. However, it formally applied throughout a child’s life (Sawyer & Sawyer, 2022: 28–29).
Criteria and Initiation
The Vestal Virgins had to meet specific criteria. Aulus Gellius lists some of the required qualities, such as the prohibition of selecting a girl who is younger than six or older than ten years, or whose one of her parents has passed away. A girl who shows a defect in speech, hearing, or any other physical defect also does not meet the requirements, nor does a girl whose parents were slaves or of a lower financial status. A girl whose sister was already a Vestal Virgin, or whose father was one of the priests or senators, could also be excluded from the selection. Additionally, the father had to be a Roman citizen, that is, have Italian citizenship, and families with fewer than three children were not allowed to send their daughter to become a Vestal Virgin (Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae, 1. 12).
The initiation process involved the transition from the family community to the sphere of state religion. As a member of the state’s public cult, a Vestal Virgin did not belong to just one family but to the entire community, meaning that the Vestal Virgins were treated as an institution. In other words, they were not viewed individually but as a collective. Traditionally, the Pontifex Maximus would take the girl from her family and utter the following words: „I take you, Amata, as a Vestal Virgin—a priestess who will fulfill her duties on behalf of the Quirites (the citizens of Rome), as every Vestal Virgin does by law in the best way“ (Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae 1. 12. 14). The Vestal Virgin, the moment she was introduced into the atrium of the Temple of the Vestals and handed over to the supreme priest, would leave her father’s authority and jurisdiction but retain the right to make a will.
Virginity – Blessing and Curse
The symbolism of fire represents the duality of powerful male procreative energy and that of the purified woman (the Vestal Virgin). This duality simultaneously referred to both sexual aggression/power and sexual avoidance (Staples, 1998: 149). The Vestal Virgins tended the fire from the mythical founding of Rome (around the 8th century BCE) until 391 AD, when Christianity became the official religion and the worship of all pagan deities was banned. This fire symbolized the heart of Rome, and all other households would light a fire in their homes because it represented warmth, prosperity, and purity. The accidental extinguishing of the fire in the Temple of Vesta was considered by the Romans to be a bad omen, a sign foretelling some misfortune or a fall from the gods’ favor. In addition to guarding the fire, special emphasis was placed on the preservation of the virginity of the Vestal Virgins. From the perspective of cultural anthropology, virginity is associated with the state of physical intactness and moral integrity; it symbolizes purity, unity, and great power (Kroppenberg, 2010: 419). The Vestal Virgins had to remain virgins while serving the goddess Vesta, for a period of about thirty years, although many chose to remain in this service for life. The importance of virginity is confirmed by Cicero, who, in his work De legibus, writes that Since Vesta, according to her Greek name, holds the hearth of the city, let virgins be entrusted with her worship, so that the fire may be more vigilantly guarded, and women may understand that complete chastity is expected of their nature (Cic. Leg. 2:29). Until the onset of puberty and the appearance of temptations caused by hormonal changes, the life of the Vestals was comfortable and secure. In addition to tending the sacred fire, they were required to fetch water from the sacred spring and carry it to the Atrium or temple. They prepared Vesta’s salted cakes and cleaned the floors of her temple. Their duties also included preparing sacrificial cakes for religious festivals and guarding the October Equus – the blood and ashes of the sacrificed calves (Abott, 2007: 68). The sacred nature and various duties of the Vestals have long occupied the minds of interested male writers in explaining Roman history and analyzing the origins of various cultural habits. The poet Ovid illustrated the sacred duties of the priestesses through the religious calendar, while the philosopher and naturalist Pliny the Elder described the ancient origins of their sacred abilities. Other writers, such as Seneca the Elder and Plutarch, analyzed the cultural norms surrounding the Vestals, while the second-century lawyer Gaius and the grammarian Aulus Gellius provided information on the laws concerning the Vestal priesthood. Similarly, sources discussing the legal elements of the cult of Vesta are valuable for shedding light on the changes in the social status of the priestesses and their institutions (Sihvonen, 2020: 52). The first to engage with the Vestals in contemporary academic discourse was the English baron and politician Sir Thomas Cato Worsfold. In his book History of the Vestal Virgins of Rome (1932), he details the world of the Vestals: their origins, duties, importance, dress, daily life, and participation in religious rituals (Worsfold, 1932). Over time, more research has been conducted on the subject of the Vestals and the roles of women in ancient Rome. For instance, author Ariadne Staples, in her book From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion (1998), focused, among other things, on the duties of the Vestals, the characteristics of their virginity, and the various meanings of the fire they guarded.
Emancipation or Oppression
What distinguished the cult of the Vestal Virgins was their departure from the traditional gender roles and their defiance of categorization in ancient Rome. They were priestesses who were not bound by male ownership, which to some extent liberated them from traditional norms. The privileges they enjoyed included attending senatorial dinners, going to the theater with imperial women, and safeguarding valuable state documents. These privileges reflected the Roman belief that the Vestal Virgins were true guardians of Rome: its purity and its power. However, the cult was marked by male-created ideals of femininity, meaning that this idealization of the Vestals was supported by the rulers (Saywer, Saywer, 2022:119). In her article „The Power of Virginity: The Political Position and Symbolism of Ancient Rome’s Vestal Virgin“ (2010), Kathryn Ann Wagner explains that the Vestals were much more than virgins. She notes that they were portrayed as daughters, mothers, and priestesses of Rome (Wagner, 2010: 23). Nevertheless, behind this glamorous image lies a much deeper issue, as behind the image of pious, influential women, there were women who sacrificed their sexuality and familial bonds. Mary Beard interprets the Vestals as having a dual sexual status. Such a status, in a legal sense, reflected their mediation between opposites: heaven and earth, purity and impurity, life and death, man and woman. The author emphasizes that the Vestal’s transition from female nature to male culture symbolically merges and simultaneously engages all fragmented power to create a dynamic and ever-expanding Roman Empire (Beard, 1980: 54).
But what was so special about the Vestals that, in a patriarchal society, they were able to enjoy privileges that were unavailable to many other women? Why were they privileged to communicate with prominent men of the Roman aristocracy, to discuss important state and political matters with them, and to travel freely? What made their order stand out in superiority over other women? Was it their special gifts, or the fact that their activities were still controlled by men, giving them only the illusion of power? Deborah and John Sawyer suggest that only under these circumstances, as women whose sexuality was controlled, were they deemed safe in the eyes of patriarchal rulers (Saywer, 2022). Indeed, if they violated the commands of their cult, they would be punished in the worst possible way. How do we punish women today when they break the rules, and when their sexuality crosses the boundaries of patriarchal norms? How often do we blame women who experience rape, accusing them of provoking and attracting the rapist with their provocative behavior? The Vestals, like many women and girls today, were victims of male and structural violence and femicide. Despite their powerful status, the life of a Vestal Virgin was always on the line, as they faced dangers greater than those posed by sexually inappropriate behavior. They were exposed to accusations that the loss of their chastity was the main cause of political and state problems. The chief Vestal, Cornelia, was one of the victims of such manipulations. In 216 BCE, Roman leaders did not attribute the disastrous military defeat at Cannae to military errors, but to the sexual transgressions of the Vestal Virgins. However, the Romans created the image of their deaths as voluntary acts of self-sacrifice. Since it was forbidden to shed the blood of a Vestal Virgin or to bury anyone in Rome, the offending priestess was buried alive in a chamber outside the city, with enough food and water to survive for several days. This execution created the illusion of voluntary self-sacrifice. As a result, two Vestals lost their virginity and their lives by suffocating in the darkness of the tomb on the Campus Sceleratus. Of the ten documented cases of Vestals being buried alive, most were chaste but sacrificed to cover up someone else’s mistake (Abbott, 1999: 69). Powerful Romans fabricated accusations of corruption against the Vestals to make room for their own daughters in the Temple of Vesta. Since the temple could accommodate only six Vestals, powerful Romans found that an appropriate accusation was a good way to create new vacancies. In 215 BCE, Emperor Caracalla destroyed the lives of three Vestals; one was sexually exploited by him, and afterwards, through his influence, he caused the victim and her two companions to be buried alive on the Campus Sceleratus (Abbott, 1999: 70). The virginity of the Vestals had great significance: it represented life and death, stability and chaos for the Roman state. The symbolism of virginity transcended the physical aspect, as the loss of physical virginity represented a betrayal of duty and order. Therefore, the sexuality of the Vestal Virgin was inseparable from the welfare of the state, in the sense that if the state was in crisis, burying one of the „fallen“ Vestals was seen as a hope for the salvation of the state and the preservation of the Roman order. On the other hand, if the state was peaceful and stable, it was perceived by the Romans as evidence that the Vestals were chaste and pure[5]. The Vestal Virgins are an example of patriarchal creation of idealized femininity, which discourages women from following their nature, while motivating them toward male social values. The purpose of the Vestal order’s existence was to serve male interests and initiatives, and every advantage they had over other women in that society was actually fictitious. Ultimately, the irony remains that the rulers had the right to accuse the Vestals of losing the battlefields or any other social problem. Innocent and unwilling, they were forced to believe they had a purpose, while in reality, they were used to fulfill the narrative of patriarchy.
The Loss of Innocence as Justification for Violence
In contemporary times, it is crucial to discuss the origins, causes, and consequences of the marginalization of women based on their chastity. The loss of shame, inappropriate promiscuous behavior, the „prostitute“ lifestyle, and other examples are often cited as justifications for violence against women. In the 21st century, we witness forms of violence such as genital mutilation, forced marriages, and honor killings. These destructive forms of violence have a common denominator: the control of female sexuality, grounded in the belief that women must be chaste, obedient, and submissive, with their sexuality decided by their master—father, brother, relative, later husband, religious leader, or politician. Jessica Valenti, in her book The Purity Myth: How America’s Obsession with Virginity Is Hurting Young Women (2009), argues that women should not be judged based on whether they have sex before marriage or not. She discusses the importance placed on virginity for women, which causes much harm and very little benefit. Our society labels women based on their sexual experience. The author believes that sex should be an experience of intimacy and respect between a man and a woman (Valenti, 2009: 27). The importance society places on virginity causes women to be seen as objects, as if they can be damaged and devalued. Patriarchy promotes virginity but simultaneously encourages women to be sexual objects, abusing sexuality to describe women, which can harm their ability to be taken seriously. As a result, women’s rights will not progress as long as women are still oppressed by those who advocate for the virginity movement and those who promote hypersexualization and objectification of the female body.
Men – Masters of Spiritual Authority?
If we want to encourage young people to be moral and responsible, invoking shame over their own sexuality and expressing it is definitely not the solution. Accusing women of provoking lust with their appearance is, in fact, an escape from one’s own responsibility and from confronting one’s own emotions. How important is it for men to truly be the source of authority, or do deep insecurities, incorrect upbringing, deeply ingrained stereotypes, and a whole spectrum of issues with which we, as a society, are afraid to confront, hide behind this? How afraid are we to admit that egalitarianism could provide harmony and understanding between men and women? To explain the double standard of such norms, we can refer to some perspectives. For example, William Lecky, a classical historian of European morality, refers to Augustine’s idea by describing the prostitute as „the saddest, and in some cases the most tragic figure in human moral drama“ (Lecky, 1869). Although, in his words, she embodies the most dreadful kind of vice, ultimately, the prostitute is the most effective guardian of virtue. However, to her, the untainted purity of countless happy homes remains unattainable (Walkowitz, 1972). While rules and civilizations rise and fall, the prostitute remains the eternal priestess of humanity, blamed for the sins of men. Following this logic, it can be concluded that although prostitutes were vilified, they effectively cared for male lust so that „good girls“ could remain in their role of chastity. Thus, toxic hegemonic masculinity nurtures both standards to satisfy its needs.
The abuse of the value of the female hymen has manifested over centuries in different cultures and religions. We talk about progress, yet when rape occurs, we blame the woman, questioning what she did, how she dressed, how she moved. We ask women about the number of sexual partners, glorifying men as masculine seducers. We have given them sexual power, which they misuse in two extremes: either demanding chastity, passivity, and obedience, or creating fantasies about sexually promiscuous women through forms of prostitution, pornography, and hypersexualization. The problem is that there is no moderate middle ground where a woman is allowed to be free and responsible. This is why social deviations occur, justified by cultural and ideological patterns. Who is the master of female chastity and female sexuality? Unfortunately, it is still patriarchy.
Punishment and Victim
The symbolism of the Vestal Virgin remains one of the deeply rooted archetypes by which we perceive women. Indeed, she is like a fantasy—gentle, white, preserved, and safe—living in the temple, dedicated to duties and rituals. Because of prayer and rituals, she enjoyed certain privileges, such as access to spaces of power that ordinary women could not access. However, if she dared to live and find a partner, she was punished. She paid a heavy price, even if she did not break the rule of preserving chastity, because just one lost battle or a collapsed social order was enough to blame the woman. The femicides of the Vestal Virgins are portrayed as voluntary sacrifice, and today we still expect girls and women to endure and sacrifice. Back then, the role of the virgin was valued as long as it brought political benefits; the protection and prayer of virgins were a symbol of the preservation of Roman order and power. How much is a virgin worth today? As much as patriarchal male discourse decides, with the possibility of belittling girls who have no sexual experience, accusing them of being backward. However, if women are sexually active, they are labeled as free, promiscuous, and immoral. Virginity is not only physical; it carries much stronger symbolism in terms of dress, behavior, and actions, so any „freer behavior“ will be condemned. A woman has broken the rules and will be blamed just like a Vestal Virgin in ancient Rome. According to patriarchal standards, a woman’s mistake is the reason and cause for punishment, and the terrible consequence of this is the tolerance of violence against women. Dressed in the garments of patriarchal stereotypes, we believe that female victimhood can redeem our faults and sins. Joan of Arc[6], Maria Goretti[7], Diva Grabovčeva[8], and other saints and heroines have been glorified for their holiness, martyrdom, and virginity. If women suffer violence, we blame them for not being submissive enough, pure enough, and justify the abusers who commit physical and sexual oppression. We are accustomed to believing that men are the masters of a woman’s body, mind, heart, soul, and spirit. It is high time we find a way out of the enchanted labyrinths of myths and constructs and build clear paths for empowering girls and women.
Literature
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[1]The early 21st century was marked by the emergence and spread of anti-gender movements in Europe and Latin America. The anti-gender movement is often defined as a radical, populist, extreme, or religious right-wing movement. It is perceived as part of a broader political trend or ideology and as part of the radical, populist, extreme, and/or religious right, which transcends direct opposition to the feminist movement (cf. Gregorić, 2020: 150).
[2]The medieval view of human sexuality was tied to the concept of sin. The belief that what happens under the sheets is something dirty can be partially attributed to Saint Augustine, who, after a sinful youth, converted to Christianity in 387 and eventually became one of the most influential theologians of all time. The strict rules he set dictated sexual behavior for many subsequent centuries. They were based on the idea that sex was acceptable only in marriage, for the purpose of procreation, and only if it did not provide too much pleasure (cf. Kapural, 2024).
[3]The goddess Athena was Zeus’s favorite daughter, born fully grown and armed from his head. She was the goddess of wisdom and the arts, protector of justice and fairness, and the wise, victorious war. Zeus would consult with her, as she was like his reason, and she always sought to please him. She was celebrated as the protector of the Greeks, especially the city of Athens. Athena was unique in that she was a divine virgin. In mythological records, Athena is portrayed as a goddess who has an aversion to passion and romantic relationships with men (cf. Zamorsky, 1978: 157).
[4]One of the most widespread legends in the ancient world was that of the giant serpent guarding a site. According to the legend, the serpent named Python was killed by the young Apollo with his arrows. After the serpent fell into a chasm, the chasm began emitting suffocating fumes. This was the result of the serpent’s decaying body. Anyone standing over the fumes would fall into a sudden, often violent trance. It was believed by the ancient Greeks that in such a state, the god Apollo would possess a chosen person and make them a prophetess. Named after the great serpent, this chosen prophetess was called Pythia (cf. Lasković, 2020).
[5] Mary Beard warns about the ambiguous position of the Vestal Virgins in relation to the normative categories of gender in Roman society. Relying on insights from structural anthropology, the author argues that this ambiguity is central to the sanctity of the Vestals. Essentially, her interpretation rests on the assertion that by combining features associated with the status of unmarried daughters (virgins) with the status of married women (matronae), the priests themselves became vessels for symbolic mediation between culturally opposed categories, which were identified by Claude Lévi-Strauss, Mary Douglas, and other authors as the central function of myth and ritual (cf. Gallia, 2014).
[6]Many books have been written about Joan of Arc. She is known as a great French heroine who, motivated by divine messages, courageously awakened French national consciousness and love for her homeland. In 1428, she requested an audience with the French heir to the throne, the future King Charles VII, whom she immediately recognized in a crowd, even though she had never seen him before. Numerous records testify that, clad in white armor and riding a horse, with the names of Jesus and Mary on her lips, she led the French army into battle against the English. All the soldiers were amazed by her skill with weapons and her war and strategic abilities. After a long battle, she liberated Orléans in 1429, defeated the English at Patay, and led the heir to his coronation in Reims. That same year, the king bestowed a noble title upon Joan and her family. However, Joan fell into an English trap, and they sentenced her to death by burning at the stake on charges of heresy. She was written about by Mark Twain (1896), Regine Pernoud (1981), Lucia Bonato (1999), and many others.
[7]Maria Goretti is a Roman Catholic saint and a victim of a horrific femicide that she endured at the age of 12. It is recorded that a few weeks after her first communion, she was left alone at home when Alessandro suddenly appeared beside her, covered her mouth with his hand, and dragged her into his room with the intent to rape her. The girl struggled and fought with all her might, which enraged the young man. He grabbed a knife and inflicted 14 serious stab wounds and 4 minor ones. He then fled, leaving Maria lying in her own blood. Maria forgave her murderer, and this act, along with her preserved virginity and the testimony of her killer, were the reasons Pope Pius XII declared Maria Goretti a saint in 1950 (cf. Majdančić – Gladić, 2015). Although the story is deeply touching, it should not be a reason to tolerate attempted rapes and violent murders of girls and women, or to overly glorify forgiveness and the loss of life for the preservation of female honor
[8]The popular glorification of heroic virginity is also evidenced by the song: „And I was alive and beautiful. I filled Ramu with joy. But he wanted something that I did not. And when he killed me, nothing of what I was touched. I lie here for centuries in Vran Mountain, free with untouchable freedom and loved with the love that regenerates.“ This is the story of the Herzegovinian heroine Diva Grabovčeva, which was passed down orally from generation to generation. The most common martyrological motif in popular tradition is that of girls whose honor was brutally tested by the Turkish tyrants’ violence. Many chose death, as Diva did, when she fled to her death to avoid being raped by Tahir Beg Kopčić, the ruler of the Kupres region (cf. Medić, 2015).
