Although there is no solid evidence to confirm the historicity of the event, the legend of Lucretia is deeply rooted in Roman literary tradition, dating back to the era of the Roman Republic. The earliest versions of the story appear in Roman dramatic works, many of which are now entirely or partially lost.[1] Her story became a symbol of honor and social upheaval after she was raped by Sextus Tarquinius, the son of the last Roman king. Lucretia’s case transcended personal tragedy, representing an assault not only on her but also on her family’s honor. Her rape and subsequent suicide sparked a revolution that led to the overthrow of the Roman monarchy and the establishment of the Republic (Jaffe and Goren, 1987; Donaldson, 1982).
In ancient Roman society, honor, family loyalty, and sacrifice were paramount values, especially for women. Lucretia’s public confession and decision to commit suicide were not merely expressions of her pain but also responses to societal pressures that expected women to preserve familial honor, often at the expense of their own rights and autonomy.
The story of Lucretia raises critical questions about the connection between sexual violence and societal norms. Why was societal renewal based on her death rather than the condemnation of the perpetrator? Why must women in such situations prove their innocence by sacrificing their freedom or even their lives? Analyzing the myth of Lucretia provides insight into how sexual violence functions as a tool of domination and control, not only in the past but also today.
The Status of Women in Rome and the Significance of Chastity
Unlike their Greek contemporaries, Roman women enjoyed a more favorable social position, with opportunities to participate actively in public life. Examples such as Agrippina, the mother of Emperor Nero, testify to the growing political influence of women. Nevertheless, their social status was closely tied to their familial roles, particularly in upholding chastity (pudicitia). Marriage, formalized in various ways, was crucial to a woman’s social standing. Considered guardians of moral values, Roman women were symbols of sexual purity, which was essential for maintaining stability and peace. Exemplary figures like Lucretia, renowned for their moral chastity, were highly respected and esteemed, with their behavior reflecting the standards of their time (Čirilov, 2011: 22–23).
Serena Witzke, in her article „Violence against Women in Ancient Rome: Ideology versus Reality“ (2016), analyzes how narratives of violence against women in Rome shaped ideological attitudes toward women’s bodies and societal roles. While these narratives often depict extreme forms of violence, they served as moral lessons reinforcing societal ideals of honor. Witzke emphasizes that these narratives reflected ideals of morality and political stability rather than the everyday realities of women in the Roman Empire (Witzke, 2016: 250).
It is important to emphasize that the politics of sexual morality in Rome was based on two key concepts: (1) honor and shame and (2) tolerated prostitution, where prostitutes occupied a marginal social status. According to the first concept, a man—whether as pater familias or as a husband in a cum manu marriage—was responsible for protecting the family’s honor, including the sexual purity of the woman. A respectable Roman woman, such as a matron or mater familias, was obligated to preserve her sexual purity (pudicitia). A woman’s honor was not merely a personal attribute but was closely tied to the honor of the family to which she belonged. In this context, the responsibility for defending honor and avenging its violation was entrusted to men, who were considered the protectors of family honor (Glendinning, 2013: 63–68). Rape, understood as sexual intercourse against a woman’s will, during the Republican period, was left to private revenge. The punishment, depending on the status of the perpetrator, could include castration or death. Although Augustus’s lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis declared rape illegal and punishable, it was only in late classical legal elaborations that crimes such as vis, stuprum, and iniuria atrox were defined, revealing how rape was legally categorized under these terms. This development allowed rape to serve as grounds for accusations before the permanent jury courts (quaestiones perpetuae), which were responsible for criminal investigations (Miletić, Jaramaz Reskušić, 2022).
Livy’s historical narratives include numerous examples of sexual violence against women, such as the stories of Lucretia, Verginia, and Rhea Silvia. These accounts are not merely historical anecdotes but allegories illustrating social dangers and reinforcing the patriarchal order. According to Witzke, the bodies of these women became political symbols through which societal and political upheavals were articulated. Sexual violence against women, though extreme, was not depicted as a violation of human rights but as a moral lesson intended to reinforce norms of honor and family loyalty (Witzke, 2016: 252).
Rape and Suicide
The tragedy of Lucretia begins with a wager among young Roman nobles, including Sextus Tarquinius, the son of the reigning king of Rome. The wager aimed to test the virtue of their wives by catching them unawares to observe their behavior in their husbands’ absence. In this test, Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, stood out for her exceptional virtue and dedication to her household duties, in stark contrast to the behavior of other noblewomen, who indulged in luxury and leisure, neglecting their marital responsibilities (Livy, 2006; Harris, 2008: 2). Ancient sources portray Lucretia as the epitome of feminine virtue—not only morally pure but also skilled in domestic tasks like spinning wool. This idealized image of a woman was not just a reflection of individual qualities but served as a political tool in the early Roman Republic, where women’s honor was crucial to upholding societal norms (Beard, 2015).
Sextus Tarquinius, captivated by Lucretia’s appearance and virtue, decided to exploit his power and position to disgrace her. Under the guise of hospitality, he visited her household with sinister intentions. After everyone in the house had fallen asleep, Tarquinius entered Lucretia’s chamber, brandished a sword, and demanded she submit to him. Lucretia displayed great courage, refusing his advances despite threats to her life. Tarquinius escalated his threats by declaring that he would kill her and place her naked body next to that of her servant, thereby publicly disgracing her and falsely accusing her of adultery with someone of lower social status (Livy, 2006).
Within the patriarchal framework of Roman society, Lucretia believed her family’s honor was irreparably tarnished. Although she was the victim of violence, Lucretia felt that the only way to erase the shame was through her death. She summoned her father, husband, and uncle, confessing what had happened with the words, I have lost my honor. Despite their assurances that her honor remained intact, Lucretia insisted that death was the only way to restore her family’s dignity and took her own life (Ovid, 2000). Her death became a catalyst for political change in Rome. Her sacrifice sparked a revolution: Brutus and Collatinus expelled King Tarquin and his family from Rome, laying the foundation for the Roman Republic. Lucretia’s exposed body became a symbol of resistance against monarchy and a reminder of the royal family’s cruelty. This moment of political catharsis marked the beginning of a new form of governance, with Brutus and Collatinus becoming the Republic’s first consuls, ushering in a new political era (Aeschylus, 2009).
In ancient Rome, raped women were not deemed guilty of a crime because it was believed that „where there was no consent, there was no guilt“ However, a romanticized view of this story perpetuated the idea that raped women had to be broken by sorrow but also strong enough to preserve their family’s honor, which sometimes entailed suicide, as in Lucretia’s case. Livy records that her death incited an uprising among Romans, the expulsion of the royal family, and the establishment of the Republic (Livy, 2006). Lucretia’s story symbolizes the sacrifice of honor and political transformation. Despite her innocence, the burden of preserving family dignity fell upon her, and for Lucretia, suicide was the ultimate act of loyalty and responsibility.
Artistic and Cultural Representation of Lucretia’s Suffering
Konstantin Tanev, in his analysis The Case of Lucretia – Symbolizing the Political Reality (2022), emphasizes how Lucretia’s story reflects the societal values and political context of the Roman Republic. He particularly highlights the role of paternal authority within the family and the importance of chastity (castitas) as a fundamental moral principle. These values were crucial for maintaining social stability in Roman society, especially during the Punic Wars (Tanev, 2022). Lucretia’s tragic fate evolved into a symbol of abstract ideals such as patriotism, the fight for freedom, loyalty, and, above all, female chastity. While early Christian authors often condemned her suicide as a mortal sin, Lucretia’s story remained deeply embedded in Roman culture, which revered women’s moral and sexual purity (Noura, 2021).
Lucretia’s choice of death over a life of dishonor represented an expression of integrity and responsibility to society, making her a symbol of moral rectitude. In 16th-century art, artists like Albrecht Dürer and Lucas Cranach depicted Lucretia as an isolated figure, emphasizing her suffering and sacrifice. In this way, she became a symbol of the struggle for honor and freedom, inspiring artists and fostering moral debates. The motif of Lucretia’s rape became a central theme in numerous artistic and literary works. In Renaissance art, scenes like Titian’s and Gossaert’s The Rape of Lucretia vividly portray the dramatic moment of violence, while writers such as William Shakespeare in The Rape of Lucrece and Giovanni Boccaccio in Lucrezia explore the moral and political consequences of her fate. Shakespeare focuses on the moral dilemma surrounding her suicide and the political upheaval it provokes, while Boccaccio emphasizes Lucretia’s chastity and her fight for social justice (Klindiest, 2018).
Pizan: There Is No Justification for Rape!
In her book The City of Ladies (2003), Christine de Pizan expresses her outrage at claims that still resonate in society today, such as the belief that women allegedly enjoy rape or that they don’t mind being forced, even when they loudly resist. She argues that such statements are not only incorrect but deeply dangerous, as they justify violence against women. She strongly opposes any relativization of violence, emphasizing that it stems from patriarchal beliefs that depict women as objects rather than subjects of their rights. For Pizan, rape is a crime that cannot have any justification. Through the story of Lucretia, Pizan portrays this woman as a tragic symbol of the victim of male violence. Lucretia, known for her innocence, becomes the target of Tarquinius Superbus, who abuses his power to control her body. After his attempts at manipulation and bribing with gifts fail, he resorts to threats and violence. Lucretia, aware that society would disregard her claim of innocence, decides that death is the only way to preserve her honor. Her statement, “Even if it is true that I could be forgiven for a mistake and prove my innocence, I still could not escape shame and punishment,” speaks to the inner struggle caused by societal pressure that imposes a value based solely on purity (Pizan, 2003: 136).
Pizan sharply criticizes societal norms that equate women with their purity, pointing out that society even rejects an innocent victim. She opposes any attempt to justify rape, viewing it as violence that must be strictly punished. She highlights the need for changes that will establish a society based on respect for women’s rights and dignity, rather than justifying violence against them. Pizan believes that the death penalty for rapists would be an act of social responsibility to protect a woman’s honor, not an act of revenge (Pizan, 2003, pp. 136-137). Pizan’s critique goes beyond condemning rape; she calls for profound social transformation. The integrity of a woman’s body and her personal freedom, in her view, must become fundamental societal values.
How to Break the Myths?
The term „rape culture“ which emerged during the second wave of American feminism in the 1970s, describes a society in which violence against women, including sexual violence, is normative and accepted behavior. This culture implies social tolerance for sexual violence against women and children, where sexual violence becomes a daily occurrence that does not provoke condemnation (Rasmusson, 2004: 39). Rape culture also includes myths that justify violence, such as the belief that women want to be sexually possessed or that they provoke rape (Field, 2004: 175; Radačić, 2014: 205). Such myths minimize the seriousness of violence and perpetuate the belief that it results from women’s behavior, not male domination. In patriarchal social structures, where sexism shapes everyday behavior, sexual violence is often justified as a necessary evil or a consequence of women’s actions. Research shows that rape victims experience deep emotional and psychological trauma that lasts for months or years, but it is often minimized or ignored due to societal myths that blame women for the violence they have suffered (Burgess, Holmstrom, 1979: 360).
Feminist critique emphasizes that Lucretia is not portrayed as a person with her own desires and rights, but as a symbol of moral values that society must preserve. Her death, caused by the act of rape, becomes a binding call to restore honor and societal virtues. The female body, in this context, serves as a political instrument, and the woman is portrayed solely as a guardian of purity, whose behavior determines the social order. This view reflects the patriarchal dynamic in which a woman’s value lies not in her personal rights, but in the roles she plays within the rigid structures of family and community. Feminist theory seeks to find answers and criticizes such narratives within the context of patriarchal norms, calling for their reconstruction.
The social renewal in the context of Lucretia’s case is based on her death after the rape, not on the condemnation of the perpetrator, because society often places the victim in a position where she must prove her „innocence“ Instead of punishing the perpetrator, the victim is forced to sacrifice her own freedom or life to satisfy societal norms that impose great responsibility on her for her own honor and morality. This approach perpetuates inequality between men and women and denies women the right to justice. Lucretia’s story also reveals how societies shape the concepts of female honor, often minimizing the seriousness of violence against women. Rape culture, which shifts the responsibility for violence from the perpetrator to the victim, is still prevalent. Susan Brownmiller, in her work Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape (1975), analyzes how societies often treat rape as an acceptable act and blame the victims for „provocation“ This pattern is present in Lucretia’s story, where victims become symbols of the fight for honor, while perpetrators remain unpunished. Myths about women as provocateurs of violence, who fabricate accusations to gain attention, are deeply rooted and diminish the seriousness of sexual violence. They normalize violence as a means of control and domination over women. Women who survive rape are often stigmatized, considered „unclean“ and many are emotionally drained from the constant blaming.
As a society, we must provide a safe environment in which victims can openly speak about their experiences without fear of judgment. Legal and psychological support, as well as support from family and the community, are crucial in the healing process. It is important to educate the community about what rape is and how society can fight against rape culture. Additionally, programs need to be developed that help victims overcome feelings of shame and guilt through therapy, group support, and empowering women to recognize their inner strength and value.
LITERATURE
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Beard, M. (2015), SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome, New York: Liveright Publishing.
Brownmiller, S. (1975), Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape, New York: Bantam Books.
Burgess, A. Holmstrom, L. (1979), „Adaptive Strategies and Recovery from Rape. Violence and Terrorism“, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 139(9), 353–365.
Ćirilov, J. (2011), Mothers of famous people, Beograd: Laguna.
Donaldson, I. (1982), The Rapes of Lucretia: A Myth and Its Transformations, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Harris, J. (2008), „Tarquin and Lucretia (Rape of Lucretia)“, Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(3): 250–251.
Glendinning, E. (2013), „Reinventing Lucretia: Rape, Suicide and Redemption from Classical Antiquity to the Medieval Era“, International Journal of the Classical Tradition, 20(1/2), 1-22.
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Klindiest, P. (2018), „Ritual Work on Human Flesh: Livy’s Lucretia and the Rape of the Body Politic“, Helios, 17(1), 14–32.
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Milotić, I., Jaramaz Reskušić, I. (2022), „Crimes Against Sexual Morality in the Vrsar Legal Collection: Canonical Nature and Roman Models (Ideological Foundations in Roman Law)“, Hrvatski ljetopis za kaznene znanosti i praksu, 29(1), 59–87.
Noura, N. (2021), „Lucretia“, Women’n Art, https://womennart.com/2021/02/10/lucretia/ ( 13. 11. 2024).
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Radočić, I. (2014), Sexual Violence: Myths, Stereotypes, and the Legal System, Zagreb: TIM press.
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[1][1] Modern historians highlight several key authors who shaped this legend, including the poet Quintus Ennius (239 – around 169 BCE), the historian Fabius Pictor (270 – 215/200 BCE), and the poet Lucius Accius (170 – around 86 BCE). Later, the story was further shaped by Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 – 46 BCE) and historians of the late Republic, such as Titus Livius (64/59 BCE – 17 CE), Dionysius of Halicarnassus (60 BCE – after 7 BCE), and Diodorus Siculus (died around 30 BCE). The most important sources for the story of Lucretia come from Livy (27 and 25 BCE), Dionysius (7 BCE), Ovid (a few years later), Diodorus (1st century BCE/ between 60 and 30 BCE), and Plutarch (after a century). These versions were created almost simultaneously, while later authors like Valerius Maximus, Florus, and Cassius Dio developed various versions of the same story during the first, second, and third centuries CE (cf. Donaldson, 1996; Tanev, 2022)
