Ruzica Ljubičić
Rape is one of the most severe forms of violence against women.[1] Rape can devastate a woman’s integrity, self-esteem, and sense of self-worth, while also leading to various forms of anxiety, depression, panic attacks, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Women who survive rape are often subjected to societal condemnation, marked with the metaphorical „scarlet letter“ of stigma and shame. Sexual violence stems exclusively from the perpetrator’s power dynamics over the survivor, who is unable to resist. Nevertheless, society frequently sides with the rapist and condemns the survivor.[2] For beliefs, adopted positions, claims, or teachings—patterns about phenomena not based on verified facts but providing simplified explanations for violence—the term myths about violence is commonly used in the literature (Anić, 2010: 195). As Marina Ajduković notes, when myths are repeated frequently enough, they become widely accepted „wisdom“ and take on the semblance of well-founded facts (Ajduković, 2000: 43).
Throughout history, sexual violence has been used as a means of asserting power, control, and dominance over women. Despite advancements in laws related to sexual violence, it remains a pervasive and deeply entrenched issue in societies worldwide. In sacred scriptures such as the Bible, we encounter this complex and sensitive issue. The Bible contains several explicit examples of sexual violence that reflect the societal and cultural norms of the time when these events were written (Vidović, 2006). These examples include: Dina (Genesis 34), Tamar (2 Samuel 13), and the unnamed woman (Judges 19). This essay will focus on the case of Dina (Genesis 34). The primary themes of the essay include Dina’s narrative silence in the text, reconstructing interpretative traditions of Genesis 34, and restoring Dina’s voice along with that of all survivors of rape. The story of Dina’s rape and its consequences raises complex moral and ethical questions, including issues of consent, honor, revenge, the use of violence, and prompts deep reflection on challenging established patterns. Although Dina’s experience of rape is central to the narrative development of this biblical text, she remains a marginal figure throughout the story, overshadowed by the conflict between two families fighting to preserve their honor. Through her example, this essay aims to dismantle several myths about sexual violence and highlight her experience as a foundation for religious leaders’ discourse, which could support survivors of rape.
Who was Dina?
Dinah was the daughter of Leah and Jacob, the granddaughter of Rebekah and Isaac, the great-granddaughter of Sarah and Abraham, and the sister of Jacob’s twelve sons, who would become the leaders of the twelve tribes of Israel. According to the biblical account in the Book of Genesis, Leah, Jacob’s wife, gave birth to a daughter named Dinah (Genesis 30:21). Before Dinah, Leah had borne six sons to Jacob. „Then Leah said, ‘God has endowed me with a precious gift; this time my husband will honor me, because I have borne him six sons.’“ (Genesis 30:20). This statement suggests that sons were valued far more highly than daughters.[3] Marinko Vidović notes that women in the Bible are mentioned only when they are sexually mature, meaning capable of marriage and childbearing. This fact alone, according to the author, points to a perception of women primarily in relation to men, who could desire them, exploit them, marry them, or discard them (Vidović, 2006:126). In the Bible, Dinah is not portrayed as a fully developed character; nothing is revealed about her personality, desires, dreams, or aspirations. Instead, her story revolves around events that dramatically affected her life: her rape, negotiations between Hamor and Jacob about a potential marriage, and finally, her brothers’ violent revenge to restore the family’s honor. „When Shechem, son of Hamor the Hivite, the ruler of that area, saw her, he took her and raped her.“ (Genesis 34:2). Shechem then asked Dinah’s father, Jacob, for permission to marry her. When Jacob learned what had happened, he met with Hamor, Shechem’s father, who not only requested Jacob’s consent for the marriage but also proposed broader intermarriage between their families. „Hamor said to them, ‘My son Shechem has his heart set on your daughter. Please give her to him as his wife. Intermarry with us: Give us your daughters and take our daughters for yourselves. You can settle among us; the land is open to you. Live in it, trade in it, and acquire property in it.’“ (Genesis 34:8–10). However, when Dinah’s brothers heard about the incident, they called it „a disgrace in Israel“ (Genesis 34:7) and plotted revenge. They deceitfully told Hamor and Shechem that they could agree to the marriage only if all the males in Shechem’s city were circumcised. „They said, ‘We cannot give our sister to a man who is not circumcised. That would be a disgrace to us. We will enter into an agreement with you on one condition only: that you become like us by circumcising all your males’“ (Genesis 34:14–16).
A Bloody Revenge in the Name of Honor
Vidović notes that Shechem’s rape of Dinah was the direct cause of the brutal revenge carried out by Simeon and Levi, her brothers. The retaliation also reflected the Israelites’ prohibition of intermarriage with foreigners (Vidović, 2006:132). „Three days later, while all of them were still in pain [from circumcision], two of Jacob’s sons, Simeon and Levi, Dinah’s brothers, took their swords and attacked the unsuspecting city, killing every male. They put Hamor and his son Shechem to the sword and took Dinah from Shechem’s house and left. The sons of Jacob came upon the dead bodies and looted the city where their sister had been defiled.“ (Genesis 34:25–27). This act of vengeance tragically escalated the cycle of violence, leading to murders, the abduction and potential rape of women, and the obliteration of an entire community through forced assimilation. As Vidović suggests, such patterns of violence, where women’s bodies are used as battlegrounds for sending messages to enemies, are evident in modern wartime conflicts. Susan Brownmiller, in her book Against Our Will (1995), emphasizes that war uniquely legitimizes acts like rape, wherein “in the name of victory and power, war grants men implicit permission to commit rape while opportunity creates the perpetrator.” (Brownmiller, 1995:35).
The Silenced Voices of Women in the Bible
Dinah’s story has become a focus of numerous studies and debates within religious, literary, and feminist contexts. Scholars such as Phyllis Bird and Susanne Scholz have highlighted the absence of women’s direct voices in biblical texts. Bird, in Missing Persons and Mistaken Identities: Women and Gender in Ancient Israel (1997), asserts that the Old Testament rarely provides an unmediated view of women’s lives and thoughts (Bird, 1997:52). Scholz, in Introducing the Women’s Hebrew Bible: Feminism, Gender Justice, and the Study of the Old Testament (1997), notes that despite the prevalence of narratives involving sexual violence, discussions about rape are rarely addressed in ways that are empathetic or justice-oriented in contemporary theological discourse. Carolina Blyth contextualizes Dinah’s experience within a strictly patriarchal ideological framework, pointing out that biblical interpretations often align with the narrator’s perspective, implicitly endorsing Dinah’s silence and absence. In The Dinah Monologues (2009), Blyth examines the ethical implications of Dinah’s suppressed emotions, comparing her plight to the trauma of modern survivors of sexual violence. Ilona Rashkow, in The Phallacy of Genesis: A Feminist-Psychoanalytic Approach (1993), critiques Dinah’s brothers, Simeon and Levi, for their actions, suggesting they were more concerned with restoring family honor than with Dinah’s well-being (Rashkow, 1993). The voices of women in the Bible, though often subdued, resonate through their actions, faith, and influence on the events surrounding them. Dinah’s story serves as a stark reminder of the ongoing struggle to amplify silenced voices and challenge cycles of violence and injustice.
Humiliated Dinah
It is important to note that in ancient times, a virgin who engaged in sexual relations outside marriage—whether seduced or raped—was devalued in terms of her social status, bringing shame to her family (Adelman, 2021). Her virginity was crucial in negotiations over the bride price and in forging family alliances through marriage. According to the laws of Deuteronomy regarding sexual relations with a virgin outside of marriage, regardless of whether she was betrothed to another man, it was assumed that the woman had consented to the sexual act unless she cried out in protest in a city or town, or if she was taken to an open field where her cries could not be heard (Deut. 22:23–29). In their discussion of the biblical emphasis on female virginity, Gender and Law in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East (1998), Tikva Frymer-Kensky and colleagues argue that the central duty of protecting family honor was exclusively the responsibility of the men in the family (Frymer-Kensky et al., 1998: 84). This male responsibility for maintaining family honor included ensuring that the young women in the family remained chaste (virgins). Consequently, the preservation of female chastity fostered respect within the community, while any form of promiscuity by a woman tarnished the family’s reputation (Frymer-Kensky et al., 1998: 85). A promiscuous woman and her partner challenged the authority of her father and brought shame upon the family. Beyond promiscuity, the issue of rape was irrelevant regarding the imposed stigma, as the entire family was blamed for failing to properly protect the woman’s chastity. Since Dinah was outside in the open, it is plausible that her father and brothers assumed she was raped, as indicated by terms such as “defiled” (Gen. 34:5, 13, 27), treated „like a prostitute“ (v. 31), and considered an „offense“ (Deut. 22:21, Judges 20:6 and 10, 2 Sam. 13:12).
Why Did She Go Visiting?
Because Dinah went out to visit women who were not part of her tribe, her very visit raises questions often posed in misogynistic discourse. These questions become „stronger“ than us, as Esther Oluwafunmilayo (2017) explains. We ask: Why did Dinah feel the need to visit strangers? Why did she go alone? Why didn’t she scream for help, and so on? We repeatedly pose such questions in daily conversations and social media posts whenever we learn of sexual violence. In rabbinic tradition, it is often interpreted that if Dinah had not gone out, Shechem would not have seen her, and the entire city would have been spared trouble (Wolde, 2002). Vidović emphasizes that women in biblical accounts were in danger when they left home. They were exposed to sexual violence, underscoring the notion that a man was the master of a woman’s sexuality. Outside her father’s (Jacob’s) protection, a woman’s chastity was secure, while outside, it was endangered (Vidović, 2006: 112). In other words, Dinah is blamed for the rape, the loss of Jacob’s honor, and the massacre of Shechem’s clan. In patriarchal societies, women are categorized by promiscuity, including unwanted sexual encounters, meaning even raped women are labeled as prostitutes.
Rape is a heinous crime and a profound violation of personal integrity. This event is deeply troubling and reflects the reality of sexual violence against women in ancient times. It highlights issues of power, consent, and women’s vulnerability in patriarchal societies. The biblical narrative does not delve into Dinah’s feelings or perspective on the matter but focuses on her family’s reactions and the consequences. However, as Ellen van Wolde notes, Genesis 34 does not address the issue of sexual violence but presents a traditional view of women, who were not allowed to have their own perspective or decide about their lives. Social, cognitive, and legal institutions create cultural codes that profile the denial of female integrity—producing a patriarchal environment that renders it invisible and, therefore, inevitable for both women and men. The author points out that the aftermath of rape includes even worse consequences, such as the loss of freedom, restriction of movement, loss of personal perspective, and deprivation of voice. All this is devastating as it renders people, especially women, invisible, leaving them out of our memory (Wolde, 2002).
In patriarchal discourse, the family status of Jacob and Hamor matters much more than Dinah’s trampled dignity. Frances Klopper argues that contemporary readers of Genesis 34 face challenging questions: How should we respond to a text about rape that risks justifying sexual violence? How can we explain the story’s significance in light of modern women’s experiences? What are the readers’ attitudes, and how much are these attitudes influenced by deeply rooted stereotypes that emphasize a woman’s responsibility for rape? How should the text be interpreted to respect the integrity of female characters like Dinah, Tamar, and other raped women in the Bible? (Klopper, 2010). The case of Dinah in the biblical narrative should serve as a lesson emphasizing the importance of respecting women’s autonomy and dignity. Irmtraud Fischer observes that the most dangerous place for a woman is her home and family (Fischer, 2023: 261). In Dinah’s case, the escalation of revenge by Jacob’s sons affected the entire settlement’s inhabitants, forcing Jacob to leave the region. „Then Jacob said to Simeon and Levi, ‘You have brought trouble on me by making me obnoxious to the Canaanites and Perizzites, the people living in this land. We are few in number, and if they join forces against me and attack me, I and my household will be destroyed’“ (Gen. 34:30). The brothers insisted they were justified because the family’s honor had been sullied and was evidently restored by their revenge (Gen. 34:27–31). Fischer notes that the narrator focuses on the men’s emotions. Jacob is cautious about the numerous inhabitants, while his sons are angry about the tarnished family reputation. On the other hand, Shechem feels affection for Dinah, and his father is willing to rectify the crime through certain concessions.[4] Fischer observes that family reputation takes precedence, while Dinah’s feelings are entirely ignored. By the end of the account, no one addresses her, which Fischer interprets to mean that Dinah is and remains an object for men with very controlled emotions. The narrator does not allow Dinah to speak, rendering her will entirely irrelevant in the story (Fischer, 2023: 262). Biblical stories about sexual violence provide an opportunity for modern readers to engage in discussions about ethics, justice, and the treatment of vulnerable women. While it is crucial to approach these stories with sensitivity and critical thought, considering their cultural and historical context, it is equally important to advocate for the rights of women who have experienced sexual violence and are marginalized compared to men.
Believe Women!
Matthew Ansety notes that Dina has no voice. Many women who have survived sexual violence, lost their voices, or are still not ready to speak about their traumas can relate to her. The author asserts that we are called to action and consistency—because this is how we help survivors reclaim the integrity unjustly taken from them (Ansety, 2004). Her silence is loud enough to resonate through generations. We hear it in the accounts of other fathers who perceive the rape of their daughters as their own shame and punishment. They feel disgraced before a society that accuses them of failing to teach their daughters not to wink and provoke. According to the harsh judgment of patriarchy, they were not strict enough, and as a result of this perceived lack of discipline, the rape occurred. Dina’s voice has been erased, just as we may never hear the voices of the women of our generation who have experienced sexual violence and cry into their pillows because of their trauma. Silence implies resignation, and denial, according to traditional interpretations of rape narratives, implies voluntary participation. Feminist educator Nelle Morton calls on women to listen to the speech embedded in Dina’s story and motivates us to go even deeper—to become the voices of all our sisters (Cohn & Weiss, 2008). Dina’s case can prompt us to ask what we are doing in our religious communities to support women who have been raped. How do we treat survivors? Do we show understanding, respect, sensitivity, and empathy, or do we point fingers of condemnation at them? How sensitive are we to cases of sexual abuse within religious institutions? How often do we talk about this issue? Do religious representatives warn about the rise of sexual violence, and do they address the traumas of women in sermons and public and media spaces? Dina’s experience can be read and interpreted in ways that restore her lost integrity and defend, in her name, the girls and women who have been raped. Instead of traditional interpretations and seeking justification in tradition, circumstances, or the era, we can choose a feminist approach that primarily aims to expose androcentric bias and portrays Dina as an object in male power games (Klopper, 2010). By using our voices, we interrupt Dina’s silence and create the potential for every woman to speak without fear.[5] In addition to providing a space for free speech, it is essential to build trust and offer survivors safety and support. Dina did not have support; her father, brothers, and the family of her rapist thought only of their interests and saving their reputations. There is no record of how she felt, whether she could confide in anyone, or how she perceived the family negotiations, her brothers’ revenge, and the escalation of violence.
Rehabilitation After Rape
How do women who have been raped feel? Dirty, humiliated, ashamed, guilty. They might want to scrub away the feeling of disgust left behind by the cruel act. They might feel fear, mistrust, or both. Thanks to the #MeToo movement, many American actresses, singers, and other women shared their testimonies of sexual violence. Actress Milena Radulović spoke out about being raped by director Mika Aleksić, and after her, many women shared their emotions on the platforms #nisamtražila (#Ididntaskforit) and #nisamprijavila (#Ididntreport). They spoke about uncomfortable police interrogations, societal condemnation, and an insufficiently sensitive system that still believes women provoke men, leaving men unable to resist their desires. Discourse about rape requires a serious and interdisciplinary approach involving representatives of religious communities. They should not denounce women or label them as flirtatious seductresses but should instead declare that rape is a sin against God and humanity. Sexual abuse is a grave sin and crime and should be represented as such in religious communities. Religious representatives (priests, pastors, imams, rabbis) can reach a large audience and influence individual and collective awareness of sexual violence against women as both a crime and a sin. Society relies on religious representatives for moral guidance, trusting in their reputation, credibility, and authenticity. However, the presence of rape myths, traditional views, stereotypes, and the direct and indirect blaming of victims can contribute to the spread of misinformation about sexual violence. In such a society, we will continue to blame survivors, seek reasons for sexual violence, and justify rapists. Dina’s case serves as an example of how not to treat survivors. We need to hear their voices, be patient, and believe them when they speak. Sermons at mass have a significant impact. They are often retold at family Sunday lunches. It is common to hear grandparents, parents, or other family members say, „The priest said this or that.“ The priest’s word carries weight and shapes the opinions of a family that attends church every Sunday. Imagine if a priest preached about Dina’s case and told women they are not to blame! They are not at fault for walking freely, socializing, or laughing. Imagine a priest encouraging women to be free in their expression. On the other hand, imagine if the priest also told fathers and mothers to believe their children when they confide in them about sexual harassment. Such a sermon, retold at a family lunch, could change narratives and break stereotypes. Grandparents might stop believing that their granddaughters provoke with floral dresses, and conversations about the real causes of violence—with an emphasis on respect, mutual understanding, listening, and empathy—might begin. One sermon, one lunch—it could lead to significant changes.
LITERATURE
Ajduković, M. (2000), „Myths and facts about violence against women in Croatia“, In B. Juras (Ed.), The Position of Women in the Republic of Croatia (pp. 101–108). Zagreb: State Institute for the Protection of the Family, Maternity and Youth.
Anić, R. (2010), „Demythologization of the incompatibility of love and violence in the family context: A theological approach“, Church in the World, 45(2), 193–217.
Ansety, M. (2004), „The rape of Dinah (Genesis 34): Reading Scripture in the contemporary church“, St. Mark’s Review, 3, 30–40.
The Bible (1968), Zagreb: Christian Today.
Bird, P. (1997), Missing Persons and Mistaken Identities: Women and Gender in Ancient Israel (Overtures to Biblical Theology), Minneapolis: Fortress Press.
Blyth, C. (2009), „Terrible silence, eternal silence: A feminist re-reading of Dinah’s voicelessness in Genesis 34“, Biblical Interpretation, 17(5), 483–506.
Brownmiller, S. (1995), Against Our Will (Trans. N. Hewitt). Zagreb: Zagorka.
Cohn, T., & Weiss, A. (2008), The Torah: A Women’s Commentary, New York: CAR Press.
Diamant, A. (1997), The Red Tent (Trans. A. Gotovac). Zagreb: Znanje.
Fischer, I. (2023), „Sexual harassment in the Bible #ThemToo“, Renewed Life: Journal for Philosophy and Religious Sciences, 78(2), 257–265.
Frymer-Kensky, T., et al. (1998), Gender and Law in the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
Jurič, S. (1996), The Genealogy of Jesus Christ Church in the World, Split: Church in the World.
Catechism of the Catholic Church (2016). Zagreb: Croatian Bishops’ Conference, Glas Koncila.
Klopper, F. (2010), „Rape and the case of Dinah: Ethical responsibilities for reading Genesis 34“, Old Testament Essays, 23(3), 652–665.
Mamula, M. (2011), Sexual Violence in Croatia 2000–2010, Zagreb: Women’s Room – Center for Sexual Rights.
Oluwafunmilayo, E. (2017), „Dinah and her experience of sexual assault in Genesis 34: Lessons for the girl-child in contemporary society“, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 7(5), 381–387.
Rashkow, I. (1993), The Phallacy of Genesis: A Feminist–Psychoanalytic Approach Literary Currents in Biblical Interpretation,Louisville: Westminster and Knox Press.
Scholz, S. (1997), Introducing the Women’s Hebrew Bible: Feminism, Gender Justice, and the Study of the Old Testament, London: Bloomsbury.
Vidović, M. (2006), „Violence against women in the Bible“ In Violence Against Women: Theological-Pastoral Challenge (pp. 98–158). Split: Franciscan Institute for the Culture of Peace.
Wolde, E. (2002), „The Dinah story: Rape or worse?“, Old Testament Essays, 15(1), 225–239.
[1]Sexual violence is any sexual act against the will of the survivor, an attempt to commit a sexual act, an unwanted sexual comment or proposal directed at a person and their sexuality, which can be committed by another person regardless of the relationship with the survivor or the situation in which they find themselves. It is characterized by the use of force, threats, or coercion to endanger the well-being and life of the survivor or those close to them. Forms of sexual violence are numerous and are most often recognized as sexual harassment, various forms of sexual abuse, marital rape, rape in intimate relationships, rape by an unknown person, gang rape, systematic rape in armed conflicts, sexual abuse of persons with developmental and intellectual disabilities, persons with disabilities, sexual abuse of children, forced prostitution, and the trafficking of women and children for sexual exploitation ( Mamula, 2011). Article 2356 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church defines rape as the violent entry, through brute force, into the sexual intimacy of a person, which violates justice and love. Rape deeply offends everyone’s right to respect, freedom, physical and moral integrity, and causes severe damage and pain that may mark the victim for life. It is always an evil act. Rape is even more severe when committed by close relatives (see incest) or by caregivers over children entrusted to their care (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2016: 602).
[2]Since readers often base their interpretations on tradition and customs, such interpretations become „dangerous“ because they reflect the cultural assumptions of the time, which is a rape culture—a culture that minimizes rape, sympathizes with rapists, and blames survivors. Such interpretations continue to perpetuate myths about rape and spread stereotypes about survivors of sexual violence (Klopper, 2010)
[3]The male offspring is at the center of attention, while the female offspring is marginalized. This is confirmed by biblical genealogies as a significant factor in determining the identity of individuals, tribes, and nations. Daughters in the Bible are often silenced or left unnamed. In the Old Testament, there are 29 depictions in which women/daughters are described, but not as the main actors in the events, rather as objects of actions and interests of men ( Jurič, 1996).
[4]Prof. Dr. Irmtraud Fischer, Institute of Catholic Theology, Karl-Franzens University, Graz. The article was published in June 2018 in Études, 4250, pp. 77–88. The article was translated into French by Erwan Chauty and François Euvé. The translation from French to Croatian was done by Tvrtko Barun SJ, and the editing of the Croatian translation was done by Vladimir Horvat SJ.
[5] In 1997, the writer Anita Diamant re-imagined Dinah’s story in her book The Red Tent. In this novel, Dinah is the first-person narrator, and her encounter with Shechem is not a rape, but a romantic relationship in anticipation of marriage. Dinah willingly marries the Canaanite prince and is horrified and saddened by the vengeful actions of her brothers. She escapes to Egypt to give birth to a son and reunites with her brother Joseph, now Egypt’s prime minister. The Red Tent became a global phenomenon embraced by women who wanted a different view of women in the Bible. Although entirely fictional, Diamant wrote the novel after studying history and anthropology around 1600 BCE, especially in terms of what could be learned about the lives of ancient women. The Red Tent is a symbolic title, referring to a ritual practice common among tribes of the ancient Near East, where women lived in such tents with their sisters, daughters, and mothers, and celebrated the cult of menstruation ( Diamant, 1997).
