Ružica Ljubičić
Women have played a significant role in the development of Buddhism, yet their contributions remain largely unrecognized in the context of women’s spirituality. Among them, Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī, the Buddha’s aunt and teacher, stands out as the first woman admitted to the Buddhist monastic order. Her monastic engagement raises numerous questions about the role of women in Buddhist history: Who were the first Buddhist women? How did they shape monastic life? What traces of their legacy remain? How do women today contribute to shaping the spiritual landscape within Buddhist communities? This text explores the life and spiritual legacy of Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī and the first women who embarked on the Buddhist path, highlighting their enduring impact on the Buddhist tradition from its beginnings to the present day. Special attention is given to women’s contributions to spiritual practices, emphasizing the significance of their experiences in shaping Buddhist philosophy and spirituality.
Buddha and buddhism
Gautama Siddhartha, the enlightened teacher and founder of Buddhism, was born around 563 BCE in the region that now borders India and Nepal, into a Kshatriya family that had amassed wealth through the rice trade (Rahula, 2000). According to historical sources, Siddhartha was shielded from poverty and suffering due to his privileged status. However, upon encountering the harsh realities of the outside world, he was compelled to abandon his life of luxury and embark on a spiritual quest.
In his pursuit of true understanding, he withdrew to the forest, where he joined ascetics dedicated to fasting, purification, and meditation. By synthesizing insights from the Upanishads, Samkhya, Jainism, and Yoga, he formulated the fundamental principles of Buddhism, known as the Four Noble Truths (Zdravković, 2012: 23). These truths state that (1) life is characterized by suffering (dukkha); (2) the cause of suffering is craving and attachment (samudaya); (3) suffering can be overcome by extinguishing craving (nirodha); and (4) liberation from suffering is attained by following the Noble Eightfold Path (magga), which encompasses right understanding, right action, and meditation (Rahula, 2000). His teachings attracted numerous followers, leading to the formation of the first Buddhist monastic order. The Buddha passed away at the age of eighty, most likely due to food poisoning.
Buddhism can be described as a complex system of thought that functions as a philosophy, a spiritual practice, a way of life, and an institutionalized religion. Over the centuries, it evolved into three main branches: Theravāda, the oldest form of Buddhism, which is based on the Pali Canon and emphasizes monastic life and individual enlightenment; Mahāyāna, which promotes the ideal of the bodhisattva—a being who postpones personal enlightenment to assist others; and Vajrayāna, often associated with Tibetan Buddhism, which incorporates esoteric practices and highlights the role of spiritual teachers (Gombrich, 1988).
Obstacles Did Not Halt the Monastic Mission
Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī (Sanskrit: महाप्रजापति गौतमी; Pali: Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī), also known as Prajāpatī, was the first woman to request ordination directly from Gautama Buddha, making her the first formally ordained female monastic among the bhikkhunī—Buddhist nuns (Chodron, 2024). In addition to her role as the founder of the female monastic order, Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī also played a significant part in the Buddha’s early life as his caregiver. After the passing of his biological mother, Mahāmāyā (Maya), she assumed maternal responsibility for the young Siddhartha Gautama, providing him with a stable and secure family environment during his childhood and upbringing. As the sister of the Buddha’s biological mother, their familial bond was further deepened, leaving lasting spiritual implications (Zdravković, 2012: 23).
A study by Bhikkhu Anālayo, a professor at the Asia-Africa Institute of the University of Hamburg, provides a thorough examination of the founding history of the Buddhist nuns’ order. His book, The Foundation History of the Nuns’ Order (2021), published as part of the Hamburg Buddhist Studies series, builds upon his previous works, such as The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal (2010) and The Dawn of Abhidharma (2014). Anālayo’s analysis of canonical sources in Chinese, Pali, Sanskrit, and Tibetan offers an in-depth exploration of Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī’s monastic journey, emphasizing her determination and commitment.
Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī played a crucial role in advocating for gender equality within monastic life. Despite the rigid norms of the time, which regarded women as less capable of spiritual progress, she did not waver in the face of obstacles but persisted in her request. After being denied three times, the Buddha eventually granted her request, leading to the establishment of the Buddhist nuns’ order. Together with a group of women from the royal family, Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī shaved her head, donned monastic robes, and adopted monastic customs, demonstrating her unwavering dedication to the Dhamma[1]—the Buddha’s teachings and the spiritual law (Anālayo, 2021).
Monastic Life
Despite the initial rejections, Gautamī did not waver. At that moment, the intervention of Ānanda, the Buddha’s most devoted disciple, became crucial. Ānanda presented two undeniable arguments: first, a personal one, reminding the Buddha of Gautamī’s vital role in his upbringing, and second, one based on the idea of spiritual equality, questioning whether a woman could attain enlightenment. The Buddha responded affirmatively. Based on these arguments, he ultimately agreed to the establishment of the nuns’ order, but on the condition that they accept the eight gurudharma rules. These rules imposed specific restrictions on women within the monastic community, ensuring their subordination to monks. Namely, nuns were not allowed to advise monks on matters of spiritual practice, nor could they introduce new customs or regulations without monastic approval. Additionally, they were required to respect senior monks, regardless of their own spiritual maturity, while their leadership within the community was limited, as they were not permitted to oversee monastic administration. Furthermore, nuns could not own personal property and were obligated to surrender their assets to the community. Special provisions were also made to ensure their protection from external threats, particularly those arising outside the monastic order. Although women were deemed spiritually capable of attaining enlightenment, their social standing remained inferior to that of monks, and they were required to strictly adhere to monastic discipline and customs, often under greater scrutiny than their male counterparts (Anālayo, 2021).
Nevertheless, the establishment of the nuns’ order marked a historical breakthrough, granting women active participation in the monastic community. Gautamī’s determination and Ānanda’s intervention were pivotal moments in Buddhist history, as they provided women with the opportunity to become spiritual transmitters of the Buddha’s teachings, laying the foundation for the spread of Buddhism among all people, regardless of gender. The Buddha’s approval represented a significant step in the evolution of Buddhism—not only as a religious tradition but also as a system that, despite obstacles, allowed women to engage in spiritual life. This decision undoubtedly provoked resistance in society, as well as unease within the male monastic communities (Sirimanne, 2016). Although the Buddha was not a social reformer in the modern sense, his decision to include women in monastic life had a profound impact on the religious and social dynamics of his time.
According to numerous traditions, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī is attributed with performing supernatural feats, including multiplying and reintegrating her own image, vanishing and reappearing, and passing through walls and mountains. It is also said that she caused the simultaneous appearance of six suns, releasing immense thermal energy into the atmosphere. Following these events, tradition holds that the Buddha granted Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī and her nuns entry into Nirvana, accompanied by his blessing. The Buddha escorted Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī to the monastery gates, where she paid him her final respects by kissing his feet. Upon returning to the monastery, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī and 500 nuns began their preparations for Nirvana. News of their impending departure attracted numerous local followers, who came to pay their last respects. After bidding farewell to those gathered, Mahāpajāpatī Gotamī and her followers withdrew into meditation, and, according to tradition, they attained Nirvana (Horner, 1975; Blackstone, 1998).
Spiritual motherhood
The scholar, Dharma teacher, and writer Wendy Garling has extensively explored key moments in the spiritual life of Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī. In her biography Women Who Raised Buddha (2021), Garling portrays her life journey through the roles of sister, queen, mother, and nun, drawing on fragments from legends, myths, and canonical texts.
Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī is also mentioned as one of the central figures in Women in the History of Philosophy and Sciences (2023), a work that explores the philosophical views of 22 women outside the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian cultural spheres.[2] Her life, devoted to spiritual freedom and inner balance, served as an example for Siddhartha Gotami, who later chose to leave his luxurious aristocratic life in search of spiritual meaning. According to K. R. Blackstone in Women in the Footsteps of the Buddha: Struggle for Liberation in the Therīgāthā (1998), Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī was not only a mother but also a stable moral figure who showed Siddhartha the importance of spiritual life and the “healing” of dependency on material goods.
Details from the lives of the first nuns
The Buddhist order of nuns (bhikkhunī-saṁgha) is one of the oldest monastic communities and movements for the emancipation of women. It is the central theme of the monograph Buddhist Nuns: The Birth and Development of a Women’s Monastic Order by Mohan Wijayaratne (2010). The history of this order dates back to the fifth century BCE, a period of intense spiritual changes in the Ganges Valley, when alternative traditions emerged that challenged Brahmanical clericalism. Based on Buddhist canonical sources, Wijayaratne explores the development of the nuns’ order and the broader context of female asceticism in ancient India. In this process, the author further emphasizes other female ascetic communities, which also played a role in shaping the spiritual life of that period. In addition to Buddhist nuns, the author also describes other female ascetic communities, such as the Paribbājikā (community of Paribbājakas), Ájīvikā (community of Ájīvikas, led by Makkhali Gosāla), and Jain nuns who followed Jina Mahāvīra (Nigaṁṭha Nāthaputta). The text also mentions ascetic women who lived outside formal communities, either independently, in smaller groups, or with ascetic husbands. These communities not only provide insight into the spiritual practices of women during this time but also illustrate the broader cultural and societal context in which women sought to find their life path in a patriarchal society.
Similarly, the story of Princess Sumedhā from the city of Mantāvatī describes the challenges women faced in patriarchal societies, as well as their resistance to these norms through spirituality. Her example is not just a historical anecdote but symbolizes a broader social phenomenon. When Sumedhā decided to become a nun, her parents, who had already arranged her marriage, opposed her wish. Although everyone around her considered family life the natural path, Sumedhā chose to persevere. To demonstrate the seriousness of her intention, she cut off her hair and threw it before her parents and fiancé. Only then did her parents allow her to become a nun. Sumedhā, along with other nuns (Cálā, Úpacálā, and Sisúpacálā), rejected a life based on the established tradition that denied women the right to make their own choices, especially in the context of arranged marriages (Wijayaratne, 2010: 27). The entry of these women into monastic life was not only an act of spiritual dedication but also an affirmation of their identity, through meditation and religious practice, which enabled them to gain autonomy and redefine their social roles. Nuns like Anopāmā, who left her family’s property, and Sele, who attained inner peace through meditation, demonstrate how spirituality became a path of resistance to patriarchal norms. Stories like Sumedhā’s clearly show how spiritual life provided women with space for personal freedom. By rejecting worldly pleasures, they preserved their spiritual identity.
The Buddhist nun, scholar, and activist Karma Lekshe Tsomo[3] highlights four areas in which Buddhist women faced obstacles on their spiritual path. The first area concerns religious practice, including life customs, opportunities for teaching, meditation practices, and institutional structures. Although many of these opportunities are regularly available to laypeople and monks, they are rarely accessible to nuns. The second issue relates to the disciplinary rules that regulate the monastic life of nuns, clearly placing them in an inferior position compared to monks. Third, although Buddhist doctrine recognizes women’s ability to achieve enlightenment, this achievement is often denied recognition in terms of titles and status (Tsomo, 1999). For example, the term arhat (a person who has achieved enlightenment and liberation from samsara, the cycle of birth and death) is rarely used for women, and in Mahayana Buddhism, the term bodhisattva (a being who seeks enlightenment but delays entering nirvana out of compassion to help all beings achieve enlightenment) is rarely bestowed upon women (Gross, 1993). The greatest contribution of Buddhism to ancient Indian civilization was the radical idea that all people, regardless of caste, origin, or status, have equal spiritual value (before the source or God, we are all the same). This principle holds particular significance for women, who were traditionally excluded from religious rituals and the study of the Vedas (Halkias, 2013: 494). Despite progress, many Buddhist communities still have institutional barriers that hinder the full inclusion of women in all aspects of Buddhism.
A look into the future toward achieving equality
Although certain improvements have been made in the status of Buddhist nuns in recent decades, many obstacles arising from patriarchal structures still guide their path toward spiritual equality. Despite the progress made, the status of women within the Buddhist hierarchy remains uncertain, and their full inclusion in all aspects of spiritual practice continues to face challenges. According to Gross (2013), systematic research on gender and Buddhism only began in the 1980s, and she highlights four key areas that require further investigation. The first and most important is the need for data collection about women within Buddhism, as many Western Buddhists are unaware of the deep male dominance within these traditions. The second challenge concerns the restoration of full dedication of women in certain parts of the Buddhist world. Third, Western Buddhists (who convert to Buddhism) face the question of how to live as Buddhists in a non-Buddhist culture, while the fourth challenge points to the historical lack of female teachers and leaders within Buddhist traditions (Gross, 2013: 667).
In this context, Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī, the historical figure who made it possible for women to enter the monastic life, serves as a powerful source of motivation and inspiration for women. Her work in establishing women’s monastic communities was revolutionary in its essence because it not only enabled women access to meditation and learning but also laid the foundations for spiritual seeking within the Buddhist tradition. Regardless of gender, Mahāprajāpatī Gotamī directed women toward spiritual transformation. Women around the world can draw inspiration from her life, especially in the context of spiritual aspirations, as she represents an example of perseverance and determination in overcoming gender and social barriers. This aspect of her legacy also points to the importance of gender balance and equality, which are crucial for building egalitarian communities.
Despite the progress made, numerous challenges within Buddhist communities, such as patriarchal prejudices and reduced opportunities for women in education and rituals, indicate the need for further institutional reforms. True progress toward egalitarianism in the Buddhist environment depends on reducing these prejudices and encouraging structural changes that provide women with greater opportunities to actively participate in all aspects of Buddhist life, including leading communities and performing rituals. Only through these changes can an environment be created in which women have the same opportunities as monks, thus enabling full equality in spiritual practices.
LITERATURE
Anālayo, B. (2010), The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal, Hamburg: Hamburg Buddhist Studies.
Anālayo, B. (2014), The Dawn of Abhidharma, Hamburg: Hamburg Buddhist Studies.
Anālayo, B. (2021), The Foundation History of the Order of Buddhist Nuns, Hamburg: Hamburg Buddhist Studies.
Anālayo, B. (2011). “Mahāpajāpati’s Going Forth in the Madhyama Āgama,” Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 18, 268–317. https://doi.org/10.5840/jbe20111815 (accessed 19. 1. 2025).
Arai, P. (1999), Zen Women: Beyond the Feminist Critique. In K. L. Tsomo (Ed.), Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations (pp. 277–289), State University of New York Press.
Blackstone, K. R. (1998). Women in the Footsteps of the Buddha: Struggle for Liberation in the Therīgāthā, Curzon Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781136805769
Chodron, B. T. (2024). A New Possibility: Introducing Full Ordination for Women into the Tibetan Buddhist Tradition, available at http://www.congress-on-buddhist-women.org/index.php?id=30 (accessed 19. 1. 2024).
Garling, W. (2021), The Woman Who Raised the Buddha: The Extraordinary Life of Mahāprajāpati, Foreword by H.H. the Fourteenth Dalai Lama.
Gethin, R. (1998), The Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gombrich, R. (1988), Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo, New York: Routledge.
Gross, R. (1999), Feminism, Lay Buddhism, and the Future of Buddhism. In K. L. Tsomo (Ed.), Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations (pp. 277–289). Albany: State University of New York Press.
Gross, R. M. (2013), Buddhist Perspectives on Gender Issues. In S. M. Emmanuel (Ed.), A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Halkias, G. T. (2013), The Enlightened Sovereign: Buddhism and Kingship in India and Tibet. In S. M. Emmanuel (Ed.), A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Horner, I. B. (1975), Women under Primitive Buddhism: Laywomen and Almswomen, Motilal Banarsidass.
Monge Sanz, J. (2024), The Wheel of Dharma: Symbolism and Teaching in Buddhism, Postposm. https://www.postposm.com/budizam-kotac-dharme-simbolizam-i-ucenje-u-budizmu (accessed 25. 1. 2025).
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Tsomo, K. L. (1999), Buddhist Women Across Cultures: Realizations, Albany: State University of New York Press.
Waithe, M. E., Dykeman, T. B. (Eds.). (2023), Women Philosophers from Non-Western Traditions: The First Four Thousand Years, Cleveland: Cleveland State University.
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[1] The Dharma Wheel symbolizes the path to enlightenment and liberation from suffering, representing the fundamental principles of Buddhist teachings. It consists of three key components: the rim, which symbolizes discipline, uniting all aspects of Buddhist practice into a coherent whole; the spokes, which represent the Noble Eightfold Path, a guide to an ethical, wise, and compassionate life; and the hub, which signifies concentration, essential for attaining enlightenment and liberation. As a whole, the Dharma Wheel reflects an integrated approach that connects discipline, ethical values, and concentration on the path of spiritual development (cf. Monge Sanz, 2024).
[2] The list of women philosophers includes figures from various parts of the world, including Mesopotamia, India, Tibet, China, Korea, Japan, Australia, America, the Philippines, and Nigeria. The book covers philosophical thought that has shaped philosophy from its very beginnings up to the mid-20th century, encompassing ideas from early and late historical periods, the Middle Ages, and the modern era. The women philosophers featured in the book belonged to diverse philosophical traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Zen Buddhism, and Sufism. The book’s authors, Mary Ellen Waithe and Therese Boos Dykeman, provide a detailed exploration of their philosophical perspectives, the foundations of their schools of thought, and accompany their analyses with translations of their writing.
[3] As a professor at San Diego University, the author has published works exploring the challenges women face in accessing religious practices, education, and leadership. Her research focuses on strengthening women’s rights, reforming institutional regulations, and promoting gender equality in Buddhist communities. She actively raises awareness of historical and cultural barriers with the goal of creating a more equitable space for women in Buddhism and contributes to reforms that ensure their greater autonomy and recognition in religious life.
